LESSON 3.5- SCHOLASTICISM
UNDER CONSTRUCTION...
SORRY FOR THE INCONVENIENCE
Saturday, November 20, 2010
Lesson 3.4 Perrenialism
PERENNIALISM
Is the school of thought that views truth as constant.
Is very conservative and inflexible philosophy of education.
It is based on the view that reality comes from fundamental fixed truths especially related to GOD.
PERENNIALISTS
Believe that one should teach the things that one deems to be of everlasting importance to all people everywhere.
They believe that the most important topics develop a person.
Should teach scientific reasoning, not facts.
PERENNIALISM
Because of human nature does not change, education should not change and should be the same to everyone;
since rationality is the highest attribute,
human must use rationality to control
instinctual nature.
Education’s task is to impart knowledge of eternal truth
Education is preparation for life, not imitation of life
Students should be taught certain subjects that introduce the student to life permanencies.
Curriculum
Christian doctrine, mathematics, history, foreign languages, logic, literature, character training, moral development.
Teaching Methods
Drill and practice, computations, recitation, induction, problem solving, discussion, debate and dialogue.
Classroom Management
Training of will, rigid structure, time on task, precision, orderliness, regularity, prayer and contemplation.
Evaluation
Objective examination and essay examination.
Role of the Teacher
Trained in the liberal arts, authority figure, disseminator of truth, director of mental calisthenics and scholar.
Leading Theories
Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, Jacques Maritain, Robert Hutchins, Mortimer Adler and Allan Bloom
Ecclesiastes 12: 13 and 14
Here is my final conclusion: Fear GOD and obey HIS commands, for this is the duty of every person. GOD will judge us for everything we do, including every secret thing, whether good or bad.
Lesson 6
KATANGIAN NG PILOSOPIYANG FILIPINO
1. Konkreto sa halip na abstrakto2. Personal sa halip ng impersonal
3. Praktikal at Pangkabutihang-ugnayan
4. Sikliko at holistiko
5. Ang kaisipang Pangka-asalan ay sentripetal
6. Higit na maka-Diyos kaysa maka-agham
MGA PILOSOPIYA NG BUHAY NG MGA FILIPINO
1. Batas ng Panunumbalik- Karma2. Pagbabalanse ng Kalikasan
3. Pabilog na pananaw sa buhay
4. Konsepto ng buhay at Kamatayan
+Hali-hali, una-una, sunod-sunod lamang ang buhay
+Hindi Pag-aari ng tao ang kanyang buhay
+Ang Buhay ay may simula at may katapusan
+Ang kamatayan ay mang-aagaw ng buhay
+Ang Kamatayan ay sukatan ng pagkakapantay-
Pantay
5. Simulaing Pangkatimpihan
+ Mahalaga ang pagtitimpi o pagpipigil sa sarili
+Ang pagpipigil ay sandata sa anumang panganib
+Ang pagpipigil sa sarili ay siyang lihim na katatagan
+Ang taong di marunong magtimpi ay ang
magpapahamak sa sarili
Lesson 5- DepEd
A. The Department of Education
The DepEd Vision
“We are people organization committed to a culture of excellence in public service. Believing that the most important resource of our country is its people, we make the task of educating the Filipino child our singular mission.
We assist the Filipino child to discover his/her full potential in a child-centered and value-driven teaching-learning environment and thereby, enable him/her to create his/her own destiny in global community. We prepare him/her to become a responsible citizen and an enlightened leader who loves his/her country and is proud to be a Filipino.
We provide a school system…
Where teachers and principals achieve the desired learning outcome not only because they are empowered, competent and accountable, but because they care;
Where administrator exercise visionary leadership responsive to emerging learning needs of the nation; ensure adequate resources; promote appropriate technology; create and sustain a conducive climate to enhance learning; and
Where the family, the community and other institutions actively support our efforts.
We affirm the right of every Filipino child especially the less advantaged to benefit from such a system.”
The DepEd Mission
To provide quality basic education that is equitably accessible to all Lay the foundation for life-long learning and service for the common good.
| YEAR | OFFICIAL NAME OF DECS |
| 1863 | Superior Commission of Primary Instruction |
| 1901-1916 | Department of Public Instruction |
| 1916-1942 | Department of Public Instruction |
| 1942-1944 | Department of Education, Health and Public Welfare |
| 1944 | Department of Education, Health and Public Welfare |
| 1944 | Department of Public Instruction |
| 1945-1946 | Department of Public Instruction and Information |
| 1946-1947 | Department of Instruction |
| 1947-1975 | Department of Education |
| 1975-1978 | Department of Education and Culture |
| 1978-1984 | Ministry of Education and Culture |
| 1984-1986 | Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports |
| 1987-1994 | Department of Education, Culture and Sports |
| 1994-2001 | Department of Education, Culture and Sports |
| 2001 - present | Department of Education |
DepEd Management Structure
Central Office - maintains the overall administration of basic education at the national levelField Offices - responsible for the regional and local coordination and administration
Four Undersecretaries
1. Programs and Projects
2. Regional Operations
3. Finance and Administration
4. Legal Affairs
Four Assistant Secretaries
1. Programs and Projects
2. Planning and Development
3. Budget and Financial Affairs
4. Legal Affairs
Backstopping the Office of the Secretary at the Central Office are the different services, bureaus and centers.
The Five Service Units
1. Administrative Service
2. Financial and Management Service
3. Human Resource Development Service
4. Planning Service
5. Technical Service
Three Staff Bureaus
1. Bureau of Elementary Education (BEE)
2. Bureau of Secondary Education (BSE)
3. Bureau of Nonformal Education
Six Centers
1. National Education Testing and Research Center (NETRC)
2. Health and Nutrition Center (HNC)
3. National Educators Academy of the Philippines (NEAP)
4. Educational Development Projects Implementing Task Force (EDPITAF)
5. National Science Teaching Instrumentation Center (NSTIC)
6. Instructional Materials Council Secretariat (IMCS)
Four Special Offices under OSEC
1. Adopt-a-School Program Secretariat
2. Center for Students and Co-curricular Affairs
3. Educational Technology Unit
4. Task Force Engineering Assessment and Monitoring.
Other attached and support agencies:
· Teacher Education Council (TEC)
· Philippine High School for the Arts
· Literacy Coordinating Council (LCC)
· Instructional Materials Council (IMC)
Field Offices consist of the following:
· 16 Regional Offices headed by a Regional Director (a Regional Secretary in the case of ARMM);
· 157 Provincial and City Schools Divisions, each headed by a Schools Division Superintendent
· 2,227 School Districts, each headed by a District Supervisor
Under the supervision of the Schools Division Offices
· 48, 446 schools
o 40,763 elementary schools (36,234 public and 4,529 private)
o 7,683 secondary schools (4,422 public and 3,261 private)
KEY PROGRAMS OF BUREAU OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
· GASTPE (Government Assistance to Student and Teachers in Private Education) · CS-PST (Community Service and Public Safety Training) TSD-MCP (Thinking Skills Development for Maximized Cognitive Performance)
· Teacher Training Programs
· Adopt-A-School Program
· SIP (Self-Instructional Packages) in SRA (Social Reform Agenda) Provinces
· BP-OSA (Balik-Paaralan Para Sa Out-Of-School Adults)
· Project EASE (Effective and Affordable Secondary Education)
· School Based Education
· Indigenization/Localization of the Secondary Education Curriculum
· RHGP (Revitalized Homeroom Guidance Program)
· Population Education Program
· PEPTALK
· Population Education Information Network (POPEDIN)
· Home-Partnership Program
KEY PROGRAMS OF BUREAU OF
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
· Multigrade Program in Philippine Education (MPPE)
Preschool Service Contracting Program
SPED Personnel Enhancement Program
· Resource Materials Development for Children with Special Needs (CSNs)
· Early Intervention Program for Children with Disabilities
· Standards for Quality Elementary Education (SQEE)
| Current Educational Classroom Practices based on the Different Philosophies of Education |
| DECS Order No. 13 1998-Revised rules and regulations on the teaching of religion in public elementary and secondary Schools – IDEALISM |
| DECS Order No. 57, s. 1998 - Clarification on the changes in the (Sequencing) Social Studies program – SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONISM/PROGRESSIVISM |
| DECS Order No. 65, s 1998 - Revised guidelines on the selection of honor students in private and public secondary schools - SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONISM/EXISTENTIALISM |
| DECS Order No. 106, s. 1998 - Revised rules exemption of Scouts from Citizen's Army Training (CAT) - SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONISM |
| DECS Order No. 91, s. 1998 - changes in the Technology and Home Economics (THE) program of the New Secondary Education Curriculum (NSEC) - PROGRESSIVISM |
| DECS Order Mo. 70, s. 1998 - Revised system of rating and reporting of student performance for secondary schools - EXISTENTIALISM |
| DECS Order No. 67. s. 1997 - Implementation of the Revitalized Homeroom Guidance Program (RHGP) - PROGRESSIVISM |
| Regional School of the Future (SOF) -SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONISM |
| DECS Order No. 33, s 1996 – Reiterating the implementation of RA 1425 mandating the inclusion of Rizal’s life, works, and writing, teaching and virtues as a course. -IDEALISM |
| DECS Order No. 40, s. 1995 – Promoting culture and arts in schools - PERENNIALISM |
| DECS Order No. 54, s. 1995 – War On Waste -SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONISM/ PROGRESSIVISM |
| DECS Order No. 1, s. 1993 – Increasing the number of elementary school days and time allotment in the New Elementary School Curriculum (NESC) -ESSENTIALISM |
Sources:
Philippine Normal University LET Refresher Course 2004 www.deped.gov.ph
THAT IN ALL THINGS, GOD MAY BE GLORIFIED
B. Commission on Higher Education (CHED)
~Background~
- The Commission on Higher Education or CHED was established in May 18, 1994 through Republic Act 7722 or the Higher Education Act of 1994
- CHED is the governing body covering both Public and Private Higher Education Institutions as well as degree-granting programs in all tertiary educational institutions in the Philippines
VISION
- The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) is envisioned to be the lead catalyst in transforming the country into a prime knowledge center in Southeast Asia by revitalizing HEIs and ensuring that their renewed roles in a dynamic environment are fulfilled.
- As its direct input to poverty reduction, higher education shall supply, through its HRD function, competent basic service providers such as teachers, health and social workers to respond to the needs of the population. At the same time, higher education will produce globally competitive professionals, entrepreneurs and high-level technical manpower for the domestic and international market.
- Higher education will generate, adapt and apply knowledge and technologies for generating jobs and income and improving productivity through its research and extension functions. Specifically, it shall promote and support transfer technologies generated by HEIs for improving production particularly in agriculture and small and medium enterprises.
- The higher education system further aims to contribute to the peace process, bureaucratic reform and fiscal-strengthening goal through efficient and effective management of the higher education system and various programs to promote values formation, social integration, corporatization initiatives and entrepreneurship.
MISSION
- These HEIs shall be dynamic and conscious in promoting the academic pillars of quality education, research, and extension. Their programs and activities shall be relevant to the needs of their clientele, stakeholders, and the communities they serve.
- Access to quality higher education will be provided to the capable Filipinos regardless of socio-economic status.
CHED Mandate
- promote quality education;
- take appropriate steps to ensure that education shall be accessible to all;
- ensure and protect academic freedom for the continuing intellectual growth;
- the advancement of learning and research;
- the development of responsible and effective leadership;
- the education of high level professionals; and
- the enrichment of historical and cultural heritage.
Per Section 8 of R.A. 7722, the CHED has the following powers and functions:
· Formulate and recommend development plans, policies, priorities, and programs on higher education;
· Formulate and recommend development plans, policies, priorities, and programs on research;
· Recommend to the executive and legislative branches priorities and grants on higher education and research;
· Set minimum standards for programs and institutions of higher learning recommended by panels of experts in the field and subject to public hearing, and enforced the same;
· Monitor and evaluate the performance of programs and institutions of higher learning for appropriate incentives as well as the imposition of sanctions such as, but not limited to, diminution or withdrawal of subsidy, recommendation on the downgrading or withdrawal of accreditation, program termination or school course;
· Identify, support and develop potential centers of excellence in program areas needed for the development of world-class scholarship, nation building and national development;
· Recommend to the Department of Budget and Management (DBM) the budgets of public institutions of higher learning as well as general guidelines for the use of their income;
· Rationalize programs and institutions of higher learning and set standards, policies and guidelines for the creation of new ones as well as the conversion or elevation of schools to institutions of higher learning, subject to budgetary limitations and the number of institutions of higher learning in the province or region where creation, conversion or elevation is sought to be made;
· Develop criteria for allocating additional resources such as research and program development grants, scholarships, and the other similar programs: Provided, that these shall not detract from the fiscal autonomy already enjoyed by colleges and universities;
· Direct or redirect purposive research by institutions of higher learning to meet the needs of agro-industrialization and development;
· Devise and implement resource development schemes;
· Administer the Higher Education Development Fund, as described in Section 10 of R.A. 7722, which will promote the purposes of higher education;
· Review the charters of institutions of higher learning and state universities and colleges including the chairmanship and membership of their governing bodies and recommend appropriate measures as basis for necessary action;
· Promulgate such rules and regulations and exercise such other powers and functions as may be necessary to carry out effectively the purpose and objectives of R.A. 7722; and
· Perform such other functions as may be necessary for its effective operations and for the continued enhancement, growth and development of higher education.
Lesson 4- Emerging themes of Education
Emerging Themes of Contemporary Educational Philosophy
Contemporary philosophical themes have direct bearing to education as a whole. These are the following:
· The task of man is man himself
· Being as opposed to seeming
· Person making present
· Unfolding as opposed to imposition
· Genuine Dialogue
Summary of Specific Points of the Different Themes Presented
• A human being is a social being and an inter-human being.
He cannot live by himself for he depends on others for the things he needs in order to survive. He is not self sufficient thus he relates with the material world and with his fellowmen in his pursuit of the material things that will satisfy the needs of his body.
But a human being is not only a body. He is an embodied spirit and therefore his relationship is not limited only to the physical, bodily or social realm but also to the realm of the inter-human.
For a human being is primarily a person who becomes actuated through relations. Togetherness is a value that involves the existence of a human being not just a being-through-others but more so as a being-for-others
The interhuman relationship is achieved by transcending seemingness and entering into a genuine dialogue with the other through an I- thou relationship.
This relationship is founded on the true nature of person, the willingness to make himself present and the unfolding of the true self in the mutual sharing of persons.
It is through this relationship that he fulfills his nature and helps others fulfill theirs in a community of persons journeying towards their actualization.
Lesson 3.13- Summary
1. Major/Western Philosophies
| Philosophical Theories | Educational Theories |
| 1. Idealism • Reality is spirit. • Universe is made up of infinite mind/spirit: • Knowledge is independent of sense experience. • Act of knowing takes place in the mind. • Man can know intuitively and through reasons. • Every stimulus is derived from God. • Values are eternal. • Good and beauty is consistent with the good and beauty in God. | Aim: To develop the mind and the self Curriculum: Subject matter essential for mental & moral development Teaching-Learning Process: . • The teacher is intellectually & morally excellent. • The students are passive. • The school sharpens one’s intellectual processes Methods: Provision for thinking and application of criteria for moral evaluation |
| 2. Realism • The world is real and material. • Natural laws determine and regulate one’s existence. • Knowledge is derived from sense experience. • Test of truth is when the mind is in accord with the material object. • Anything consistent with nature is valuable. • Standards of value are determined by reason | Aim: To provide students with essential knowledge to survive in the natural world. Curriculum: Math and Science Teaching-Learning Process: • Teacher knows subject fully; relates lesson to students' experiences • Students are taught factual information for mastery. • Schools perceive change as natural evolution toward perfection of order. Methods: Requires recall, explanation, comparison, interpretation & inference |
| 3. Pragmatism / Experimentalism • Reality is determined by individual's sense experience. • Man can know nothing beyond his experience; • Experiencing determines knowledge. • Knowledge and truth are constantly changing because phenomena are constantly changing. • Values are derived from human condition. • Ultimate values cannot exists, for truth is always relative and conditional. | Aim: To teach one how to think so that one can adjust to an ever-changing world. Curriculum: Problems of democratic society as basis Teaching-Learning Process: • Learning is an individual matter. • The teacher is tasked to plan with the class in order to solve individual or group problems. Also, to evaluate what was learned, how it was learned, what new information occurred and what each student discovered. Methods: Problem-solving inquiry, discovery |
2. Contemporary/Western Philosophies
| Philosophical Theories | Educational Theories |
4. Perennialism
| Aim: To develop power of thought; Curriculum: Subject centered Teaching-Learning Process:
|
5. Essentialism
| Aim: To promote the intellectual growth of the individual learners. Curriculum: Emphasis on the essential skills (3R's) and essential subjects (English, Science, History, Math and Foreign Language) , Teaching-Learning Process: • School returns to the essentials of the basic skills of reading, writing, arithmetic, history and English |
6. Progressivism
| Aims: To provide the pupil the necessary skills to be able to interact with his ever changing environment. To develop the whole person to be able to adjust to an environment that is constantly changing Curriculum: Activity and experienced-centered Teaching-Learning Process:
|
7. Existentialism
| Aim: To train the individual for significant and meaningful existence Curriculum: Recognizes individual differences, interests, complete freedom to work; subject centered Teaching-Learning Process:
|
8. Social Reconstructionism
| Aim: To improve and reconstruct society; education for change and social Reform Curriculum: Emphasis on social sciences and social research methods; examination of social, economic and political problems; focus on present and future trends as well as on national and international issues. Teaching-Learning Process:
|
3. Eastern Philosophies
| 1. Indian Philosophies a. Hinduism
b. Buddhism
| 2. Chinese Philosophies. a. Confucianism
b. Taoism - .
|
| 3. Japanese Philosophy SHINTO
Cowardice- is condemned as a sin Loyalty- first to the emperor then to members of the family, then the community Cleanliness-to purify ones self
a. Zen Buddhism
| 4. Muslim Philosophy a. Islam •
Five Pillars of Islam a. Belief in one God (Allah) b. Prayer c. Fasting d. Almsgiving e. Pilgrimage |
5. JUDAISM
5. Christian Philosophy
b. Jesus is the Messiah, Christ, son of God c. The Holy Trinity includes the Father, the Son, and the Spirit d. The Human being is a sinner who requires redemption. e. Jesus came down to earth to redeem mankind f. The soul is immortal g. The Old Testament and the New Testament are the guides to ideal Christian Life h. Baptism is necessary for salvation. i. There is life after death J. The Historicity of the Gospel k. Repentance of sinners l. Life Hereafter m. Those who follow Jesus Christ and who repent their sins, will enter the Kingdom of Heaven | |
RELEVANT PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION OPERATING IN PARTICULAR
CLASSROOM SITUATIONS
| Philosophies of Education | Current Educational Classroom Practices |
| IDEALISM | DECS Order No. 13 1998-Revised rules and regulations on the teaching of religion in public elementary and secondary schools |
| SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONISM/ PROGRESSIVISM | DECS Order No. 57, s. 1998 - Clarification on the changes in the Social Studies program • Sequencing in Social Studies are as follows: Old: Third and fourth year students to take up Ekonomiks and Kasaysayan ng Daigdig respectively New: Kasaysayan ng Daigdig for the third year and Ekonomiks for fourth year students |
| EXISTENTIALISM / SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONSSM | DECS Order No. 65, s 1998 - Revised guidelines on the selection of honor students in private and public secondary schools |
| SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTJONISM | DECS Order No. 106, s. 1998 - Revised rules exemption of Scout^ from Citizen's Army Training (CAT) |
| PROGRESSIVISM | DECS Order No. 91, s. 1998 - changes in the Technology and Home Economics (THE) program of the New Secondary Education Curriculum (NSEC) |
| EXISTENTIALISM | DECS Order Mo. 70, s. 1998 - Revised system of rating and reporting of student performance for secondary schools |
| PROGRESSIVISM | DECS Order No. 67. s. 1997 - Implementation of the Revitalized Homeroom Guidance Program (RHGP) |
| RECONSTRUCTIONSM | Regional School of the Future (SOF) |
| IDEALISM | DECS Order No. 33, s 1996 – Reiterating the implementation of RA 1425 mandating the inclusion of Rizal’s life, works, and writing, teaching and virtues as a course. |
| PERENNIALISM/ESSENTIALISM | DECS Order No. 40, s. 1995 – Promoting culture and arts in schools. |
| SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONSM | DECS Order No. 54, s. 1995 – War On Waste |
| ESSENTIALISM | DECS Order No. 1, s. 1993 – Increasing the number of elementary school days and time allotment in the New Elementary School Curriculum (NESC) |
A REVIEW OF PHILOSOPHIES AND SCHOOLS OF EDUCATION
Idealism believes in refined wisdom. It is based on the view that reality is a world within a person's mind. It believes that truth is in the consistency of ideas and that goodness is an ideal state to strive to attain.
As a result, schools exist to sharpen the mind and intellectual processes. Students are taught the wisdom of past heroes.Realism believes in the world as it is. It is based on the view that reality is what we observe. It believes that truth is what we sense and observe and that goodness is found in the order of the laws of nature.
As a result, schools exist to reveal the order of the world and universe. Students are taught factual information.Perennialism- is the school of thought that views truth as constant. Perennialist thinking is based on unchanging principles and great ideas. Perennialism is a very conservative and inflexible philosophy of education. It is based on the view that reality comes from fundamental fixed truths-especially related to God. It believes that people find truth through reasoning and revelation and that goodness is found in rational thinking. It focuses on the universal truths that have withstood the test of time. Perennialists urge that students read the Great Books and develop their understanding of the philosophical concepts that underlie human knowledge. The curriculum stresses student’s growth in the arts and sciences.
Essentialism holds that the major purpose of education is to transmit culture and core knowledge to each new generation
Essentialism focuses on teaching the essential elements of academic and moral knowledge. Essentialists urge that schools get back to the basics; they believe in a strong core curriculum and high academic standards. Essentialism and Perennialism give teachers the power to choose the curriculum, organize the school day, and construct classroom activities. The curriculum reinforces a predominantly Western heritage while viewing the students as vessels to be filled and disciplined in the proven strategies of the past. It is the school of thought that views the teacher as the expert. This is based on the idea that students should learn the basics. Social problems and issues are not relevant in the classroom. Essentialists focus on cultural literacy, while perennialists work from the Great Books.
Progressivism holds that truth is relative. Since knowledge is always changing, we should teach children how to think rather than what to think. Progressivism is based on the belief that education should be child-centered. John Dewey was the father if this school of thought. He also believed that learning should active and not passive. It looks to the future rather than the past and generally assumes that people are good by nature and that new is better than old.
Progressivism, social reconstructionism, and existentialism view the learner as the central focus of classroom activities. Working with student interests and needs, teachers serve as guides and facilitators in assisting students to reach their goals. The emphasis is on the future, and on preparing students to be independent-thinking adults. Progressivists strive for relevant, hands-on learning. Progressivism is based largely on the belief that lessons must be relevant to the students in order for them to learn. The curriculum of a progressivist school is built around the personal experiences, interests, and needs of the students.
Experimentalism. Experimentalism believes that things are constantly changing. It is based on the view that reality is what you experience. It believes that truth is what works right now and that goodness comes from group decisions.
As a result, schools exist to discover and expand the society we live in. Students study social experiences and solve problems.
Existentialism holds that life is a meaningless void. There are no objective standards or rules, no God, no purpose or plan. Individuals are completely free. Existentialism believes in the personal interpretation of the world. It is based on the view that the individual defines reality, truth and goodness. As a result, schools exist to aid children in knowing themselves and their place in society. Students learn what they want and discuss subjects freely.
Existentialism is derived from a powerful belief in human free will, and the need for individuals to shape their own futures. Students in existentialist classrooms control their own education. Students are encouraged to understand and appreciate their uniqueness and to assume responsibility for their actions. Existentialists give students complete freedom, and complete responsibility, with regard to their education. Existentialism focuses on the individual. It encourages students to figure out problems for themselves and achieve a greater self-knowledge.
Social Reconstructionists separated from progressivism because they desired more direct and immediate attention to societal ills. They are interested in combining study and social action, and believe that education can and should go hand in hand with ameliorating social problems. This way of teaching brings social problems into the classroom. Social Reconstructionists believe that schools should take the lead in changing and reconstructing society.
Reconstructionism is an outgrowth of progressivism. It holds that the purpose for education is to establish new cultural patterns and to eliminate social evils. Karl Marx and Adolf Hitler held this view.Social Reconstructionists want students to actively work to improve society.
Lesson 3.12- Modern Philosophy of Education
Essentialism
"Gripping and enduring interests frequently grow out of initial learning efforts that are not appealing or attractive."
- William Bagley
Essentialism is grounded in a conservative philosophy that accepts the social, political, and economic structure of American society. It contends that schools should not try to radically reshape society. Rather, essentialists argue, American schools should transmit the traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become model citizens. Essentialists believe that teachers should instill such traditional American virtues as respect for authority, perseverance, fidelity to duty, consideration for others, and practicality.
William Chandler Bagley (March 15, 1874, in Detroit – July 1, 1946, in New York City), an American educator and editor, was born in Detroit, USA. He graduated in 1895 from Michigan State College, currently called Michigan State University; completed M.S., in 1898, from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1898; and was awarded Ph.D. by Cornell University in 1900.
An opponent of pragmatism and progressive education, Bagley insisted on the value of knowledge for its own sake, not merely as an instrument, and he criticized his colleagues for their failure to emphasize systematic study of academic subjects. Of his many works, Education and Emergent Man (1934) contains the clearest exposition of his educational philosophy.
The Essentialist Classroom
Essentialists urge that the most essential or basic academic skills and knowledge be taught to all students. Traditional disciplines such as math, natural science, history, foreign language, and literature form the foundation of the essentialist curriculum. Essentialists frown upon vocational, lift-adjustment, or other courses with "watered down" academic content. Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing, reading, measurement, and computers. Even while learning art and music, subjects most often associated with the
development of creativity, the students are required to master a body of information and basic techniques, gradually moving from less to more complex skills and detailed knowledge. Only by mastering the required material for their grade level are students promote(l to the next higher grade.
Essentialist programs are academically rigorous, for both slow and fast learners. The report A Nation at Risk reflects the essentialist emphasis on rigor. It calls for more core requirements, a longer school day, a longer academic year, and more challenging textbooks. Moreover, essentialists maintain that classrooms should be oriented around the teacher, who ideally serves as an intellectual and moral role model for the students. The teachers or administrators decide what is most important for the students to learn and place little emphasis on student interests, particularly when they divert time and attention from the academic curriculum. Essentialist teachers focus heavily on achievement test scores as a means of evaluating progress.
In an essentialist classroom, students are taught to be "culturally literate," that is, to possess a working knowledge about the people, events, ideas, and institutions that have shaped American society. Reflecting the essentialist emphasis on technological literacy, A Nation at Risk recommends that all high school students complete at least one semester of computer science. Essentialists hope that when students leave school, they will possess not only basic skills and an extensive body of knowledge, but also disciplined, practical minds, capable of applying schoolhouse lessons in the real world.
Progressivism
"We may, I think, discover certain common principles amid the variety of progressive schools now existing. To imposition from above is opposed expression and cultivation of individuality; to external discipline is opposed free activity; to learning from texts and teachers, learning through experience; to acquisition of' isolated skills and techniques by drill is opposed acquisition of them as means of attaining ends which make direct vital appeal; to preparation for a more or less remote future is opposed making the most of the opportunities of present life; to statistics and materials is opposed acquaintance with a changing world."
- John Dewey
Dewey regarded the physical universe as real and fundamental. He also claimed that the one constant truth about the universe is the existence of change. For Dewey, change was not an uncontrollable force; rather, it could be directed by human intelligence. He explained that as we alter our relationship with our environment, we ourselves are made different by the experience.
Dewey not only believed in the existence of change but welcomed it. He regarded the principles of democracy and freedom espoused in America as representing tremendous progress over the political ideas of earlier times. Nevertheless, Dewey found much that was wrong with American society, and he had little affection for the traditional American approach to education. He hoped that his school reforms would alter the social fabric of America, making it a more democratic nation of free thinking, intelligent citizens.
Dewey taught that people are social animals who learn well through active interplay with others and that our learning increases when we are engaged in activities that have meaning for us. Book learning, to Dewey, was no substitute for actually doing things. Fundamental to Dewey's epistemology is the notion that knowledge is acquired and expanded as we apply our previous experiences to solving new, meaningful problems. Education, to Dewey, is a reconstruction of experience, an opportunity to apply previous experiences in new ways. Relying heavily on the scientific method, Dewey proposed a five step method for solving problems:
- Become aware of the problem.
- Define the problem.
- Propose hypotheses to solve it.
- Evaluate the consequences of the hypotheses from one's past experience.
- Test the likeliest solution.
Given this view of human nature, a progressivist teacher desires to provide not just reading and drill, but also real-world experiences and activities that center on the real life of the students. A typical progressivist slogan is "Learn by Doing!"
The term "progressive" was engaged to distinguish this education from the traditional curriculum of the 19th century, which was rooted in classical preparation for the university and strongly differentiated by socioeconomic level. By contrast, progressive education finds its roots in present experience. Most progressive education programs have these qualities in common:
- Emphasis on learning by doing – hands-on projects, experiential learning
- Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units
- Strong emphasis on problem solving and critical thinking
- Group work and development of social skills
- Understanding and action as the goals of learning as opposed to rote knowledge
- Collaborative and cooperative learning projects
- Education for social responsibility and democracy
- Integration of community service and service learning projects into the daily curriculum
- Selection of subject content by looking forward to ask what skills will be needed in future society
- De-emphasis on textbooks in favor of varied learning resources
- Emphasis on life-long learning and social skills
- Assessment by evaluation of child’s projects and productions
John Dewey (October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer whose thoughts and ideas have been highly influential in the United States and around the world. Dewey, along with Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, is recognized as one of the founders of the philosophical school of pragmatism. He is also one of the founders of functional psychology and was a leading representative of the progressive movement in U.S. schooling during the first half of the 20th century.
School of Progressivist
Believing that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives, progressivists center the curriculum around the experiences, interests, and abilities of students. Teachers plan lessons that arouse curiosity and push the students to a higher level of knowledge. In addition to reading textbooks, the students must learn by doing Often students leave the classroom for fieldtrips during which they interact with nature or society. Teachers also stimulate the students' interests through thought-provoking games. For example, modified forms of the board game Monopoly have been used to illustrate the principles of capitalism and socialism. In a progressivist school, students are encouraged to interact with one another and to develop social virtues such as cooperation and tolerance for different points of view. Also, teachers feel no compulsion to focus their students' attentions on one discrete discipline at a time, and students may be responsible for learning lessons that combine several different subjects.
Progressivists emphasize in their curriculum the study of the natural and social sciences. Teachers expose students to many new scientific, technological, and social developments, reflecting the progressivist notion that progress and change are fundamental. Students are also exposed to a more democratic curriculum that recognizes accomplishments of women and minorities as well as white males. In addition, students solve problems in the classroom similar to those they will encounter outside of the schoolhouse; they learn to be flexible problem solvers.
Progressivists believe that education should be a perpetually enriching process of ongoing growth, not merely a preparation for adult lives. They also deny the essentialist belief that the study of traditional subject matter is appropriate for all students, regardless of interest and personal experience. By including instruction in industrial arts and home economics, progressivists strive to make schooling both interesting and useful. Ideally, the home, workplace, and schoolhouse blend together to generate a continuous, fulfilling learning experience in life. It is the progressivist dream that the dreary, seemingly irrelevant classroom exercises that so many adults recall from childhood will someday become a thing of the past.
Perennialism
“The great books of ancient and medieval as well as modern times are a repository of knowledge and wisdom, a tradition of culture which must initiate each generation.”
- Mortimer Adler
"Textbooks have probably done as much to degrade the American intelligence as any single force."
-Robert Hutchins
A particular strategy with modern perennialists is to teach scientific reasoning, not facts. They may illustrate the reasoning with original accounts of famous experiments. This gives the students a human side to the science, and shows the reasoning in action. Most importantly, it shows the uncertainty and false steps of real science.
The roots of perennialism lie in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, as well as that of St. Thomas Aquinas
Similarities to Essentialism
While Hutchins and Adler regard perennialism as a badly needed alternative to essentialism, the two philosophies have many similarities. Both aim to rigorously develop all students' intellectual powers, first, and moral qualities, second. Moreover, both advocate classrooms centered around teachers in order to accomplish these goals. The teachers do not allow the students' interests or experiences to substantially dictate what they teach. They apply whatever creative techniques and other tried and true methods are believed to be most conducive to disciplining the students' minds.
As with essentialism, perennialism accepts little flexibility in the curriculum. For example, in his Paideia Program, published in 1982, Mortimer Adler recommends a single elementary and secondary curriculum for all students, supplemented by years of pre-schooling in the case of the educational disadvantaged. He would allow no curricular electives except in the choice of a second language.
The perennialists base their support of a universal curriculum on the view that all human beings possess the same essential nature: We are all rational animals. Perennialists argue that allowing students to take vocational or life-adjustment courses denies them the opportunity to fully develop their rational powers. As Plato might claim, by neglecting the students' reasoning skills, we deprive them of the ability to use their "higher" faculties to control their "lower" ones (passions and appetites).
Differences from Essentialism
Unlike essentialism, perennialism is not rooted in any particular time or place. The distinctively American emphasis on the value of scientific experimentation to acquire knowledge is reflected in essentialism, but not in perennialism. Similarly, while essentialism reflects the traditional American view that the "real" world is the physical world we experience with our senses, perennialism is more open to the notion that universal spiritual forms--such as those posited by Plato or by theological philosophers--are equally real.
Perennialists seek to help students discover those ideas most insightful and timeless in understanding the human condition. The study of philosophy is thus a crucial part of the perennialist curriculum. Perennialists regard essentialism, and its view that knowledge stems primarily from the empirical findings of scientists, as undermining the importance of our capacity to reason as individuals; that is, to think deeply, analyticallv, flexibly, and imaginatively.
Recognizing that enormous strides have been made in our knowledge about the physical universe, perennialists teach about the processes by which scientific truths have been discovered. Perennialists emphasize, though, that students should not be taught information that may soon be obsolete or found to be incorrect because of future scientific and technological findings. They would not be as interested as the essentialists, for example, in teaching students how to use current forms of computer technology.
Like progressivists, perennialists criticize the vast amount of discrete factual information that educators traditionally have required students to absorb. Perennialists urge schools to spend more time teaching about concepts and explaining how these concepts are meaningful to students. Particularly at the high school and university levels, perennialists decry undue reliance on textbooks and lectures to communicate ideas. Perennialists suggest that a greater emphasis be placed On teacher-guided seminars, where students and teachers engage in Socratic dialogues, or mutual inquiry sessions, to develop an enhanced understanding of history's most timeless concepts. In addition, perennialists recommend that students learn directly from reading and analyzing the Great Books. These are the creative works by history's finest thinkers and writers, which perennialists believe are as profound, beautiful, and meaningful today as when they were written.
Perennialists lament the change in universities over the centuries from places where students (and teachers) pursued truth for its own sake to mere glorified training grounds for the students' careers. University students may learn a few trees, perennialists claim, but many will be quite ignorant about the forests: the timeless philosophical questions.
Adler believes in liberal, non-specialized education without electives or vocational classes. For him, education should serve three purposes: to teach people how to use their leisure time well, to teach people to earn their living ethically, and to teach people to be responsible citizens in a democracy. He believes that each person has the innate ability to do these three things, and that education should above all prepare people to become lifelong learners. Education never ends, in his view -- age 60 is the earliest that anyone can claim to be truly “educated”, and only then if they have devoted their life to learning.
Robert Hutchins played a great role in philosophy of education. His educational reform helped to define perennialism. For it was Hutchins, the ultimate perennialist and idealist, who said, “Education implies teaching. Teaching implies knowledge as truth. The truth is everywhere the same. Hence, education should be everywhere the same.”
Existentialism
“Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself. Such is the first principle of existentialism.''
-Jean Paul Sartre
The existentialist movement in education is based on an intellectual attitude that philosophers term existentialism. Born in nineteenth-century Europe, existentialism is associated with such diverse thinkers as
- Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a passionate Christian, and
- Friedrich Nietzsche (1811 1900)
who wrote a book entitled The Antichrist and coined the phrase God is dead. While the famous existentialists would passionately disagree with one another on many basic philosophical issues, what they shared was a respect for individualism. In particular, they argued that traditional approaches to philosophy do not adequately respect the unique concerns of each individual.
Jean Paul Sartre's classic formulation of existentialism--that "existence precedes essence"--means that there exists no universal, inborn human nature. We are born and exist, and then we ourselves freely determine our essence (that is, our innermost nature). Some philosophers commonly associated with the existentialist tradition never fully adopted the "existence precedes essence" principle. Nevertheless, that principle is fundamental to the educational existentialist movement. Existentialism as an Educational Philosophy
Just as its namesake sprang from a strong rejection of traditional philosophy, educational existentialism sprang from a strong rejection of the traditional, essentialist approach to education. Existentialism rejects the existence of any source of objective, authoritative truth about metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Instead, individuals are responsible for determining for themselves what is "true" or "false," "right" or "wrong," "beautiful" or "ugly." For the existentialist, there exists no universal form of human nature; each of us has the free will to develop as we see fit.
In the existentialist classroom, subject matter takes second place to helping the students understand and appreciate themselves as unique individuals who accept complete responsibility for their thoughts, feelings, and actions. The teacher's role is to help students define their own essence by exposing them to various paths they may take in life and creating an environment in which they may freely choose their own preferred way. Since feeling is not divorced from reason in decision making, the existentialist demands the education of the whole person, not just the mind. Although many existentialist educators provide some curricular structure, existentialism, more than other educational philosophies, affords students great latitude in their choice of subject matter. In an existentialist curriculum, students are given a wide variety of options from which to choose.
To the extent that the staff, rather than the students, influence the curriculum, the humanities are commonly given tremendous emphasis. They are explored as a means of providing students with vicarious experiences that will help unleash their own creativity and self-expression. For example, rather than emphasizing historical events, existentialists focus upon the actions of historical individuals, each of whom provides possible models for the students' own behavior. In contrast to the humanities, math and the natural sciences may be de-emphasized, presumably because their subject matter would be considered "cold," "dry," "objective," and therefore less fruitful to self-awareness. Moreover, vocational education is regarded more as a means of teaching students about themselves and their potential than of earning a livelihood. In teaching art, existentialism encourages individual creativity and imagination more than copying and imitating established models.
Existentialist methods focus on the individual. Learning is self-paced, self directed, and includes a great deal of individual contact with the teacher, who relates to each student openly and honestly. Although elements of existentialism occasionally appear in public schools, this philosophy has found wider acceptance in private schools and ill alternative public schools founded in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
Jean Paul Sartre was a well known French philosopher who lived from 1905-1980. His thought was influenced heavily by philosophers Heidigger and Husserl. He became one of the early proponents of existentialism, which emphasizes among other things, the ultimacy of human freedom. He considered himself an atheist existentialist (as opposed to a Christian existentialist) and eventually included Marxism and humanism in his philosophy. One of his benchmark works, “Existence Precedes Essence,” explains his views that there is no cosmic designer. He explores the possibility of “moral collapse” if, as he proposes, there is no essence to human nature.
Behaviorism
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well informed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take anyone at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select--doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief; and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors."
- John Watson
While educational existentialism is based on the notion that we possess free will to shape our innermost nature, behaviorism is derived from the belief that free will is an illusion. According to a pure behaviorist, human beings are shaped entirely by their external environment. Alter a person's environment, and you will alter his or her thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Provide positive reinforcement whenever students perform a desired behavior, and soon they will learn to perform the behavior on their own.
Behaviorism has its roots in the early 1900s in the work of the Russian experimental psychologist Ivan Pavlov (1848-1936) and the American psychologist , John Watson (1878-1958). By refining and expanding their studies, Harvard professor, B. F. Skinner (1904-1989) has been the driving force behind the spread of behaviorism within modern American culture. Skinner developed the now-famous Skinner box, which he used to train small animals by behavioral techniques. He also invented a World War II guided missile ystem that employed pecking pigeons to keep a projectile on course, a controversial air crib for keeping babies in a climatically controlled environment, and programmed learning.
Underlying Philosophical Basis
Behaviorism asserts that the only reality is the physical world that we discern through careful, scientific observation. People and other animals are seen as complex combinations of matter that act only in response to internally or externally generated physical stimuli. We learn, for instance, to avoid overexposure to heat through the impulses of pain our nerves send to our brain. More complex learning, such as understanding the material in this chapter, is also determined by stimuli, such as the educational support you have received from your professor or parents or the comfort of the chair in which you sit when you read this chapter.Human nature, according to behaviorism, is neither good nor bad, but merely the product of one's environment. It is not human nature but defective environments that are responsible for harmful things that people do to themselves and others. To a behaviorist, there is no such thing as free will or the autonomously acting person; such ideas are only myths that may make us feel better but do not correspond to scientific observation.
Skinner recommends that moral standards ought to be derived from the scientific observation of human behavior. We should identify through experimentation those environments that best utilize humankind's potential. In such environments, we would find the moral code that people ought to follow. That scientifically developed code would be much preferable to our present codes, which are derived from the histories and cultures of particular groups. Regarding esthetic appreciation, behaviorists consider our sense of beauty environmentally formed. Have you ever wondered why something believed to be beautiful by another culture appears ugly to you? Behaviorism says that the reason lies in the way your environment has shaped your tastes. A good example is the effect of the media on your appreciation of clothing styles. Over a few months or years, the media may convince you to regard as beautiful a style you previously found unattractive.
John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) founded the behaviorist movement in American psychology. His view that only observable events, and not mental states, are the substance of psychology provided the behavioristic flavor that still characterizes much of psychology today.
In 1913, Watson published what is sometimes considered his most important work, the article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It"--sometimes called "The Behaviorist Manifesto." In this article, Watson outlined the major features of his new philosophy of psychology, called "behaviorism."
Watson strongly rejected any belief in instincts and indicated that it was a misnomer for early experiences. Differences in ability and talent originate in early experience in contrast to being innately determined.
Social Reconstructionism
“The educational process is never neutral. People can be passive recipients of knowledge — whatever the content — or they can engage in a ‘problem-posing’ approach in which they become active participants.”
-Paolo Freire
Critical theorists, like social reconstructionists, believe that systems must be changed to overcome oppression and improve human conditions. Paulo Freire (1921-1997) was a Brazilian whose experiences living in poverty led him to champion education and literacy as the vehicle for social change. In his view, humans must learn to resist oppression and not become its victims, nor oppress others. To do so requires dialog and critical consciousness, the development of awareness to overcome domination and oppression. Rather than "teaching as banking," in which the educator deposits information into students' heads, Freire saw teaching and learning as a process of inquiry in which the child must invent and reinvent the world. For social reconstructionists and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on student experience and taking social action on real problems, such as violence, hunger, international terrorism, inflation, and inequality. Strategies for dealing with controversial issues (particularly in social studies and literature), inquiry, dialogue, and multiple perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning and bringing the world into the classroom are also strategies.
Post-Modernism
Postmodernism (or, familiarly, pomo) literally means 'after the modernist movement'. While "modern" itself refers to something "related to the present", the movement of modernism and the following reaction of postmodernism are defined by a set of perspectives. It is used in critical theory to refer to a point of departure for works of literature, drama, architecture, cinema, and design, as well as in marketing and business and in the interpretation of history, law, culture and religion in the late 20th century.
A key word to learn when trying to understand postmodern education is constructivism. Constructivism is the main underlying learning theory in postmodern education. The basic idea is that all knowledge is invented or "constructed" in the minds of people. Knowledge is not discovered as modernists would claim. In other words, the ideas teachers teach and students learn do not correspond to "Reality," they are merely human constructions. Knowledge, ideas and language are created by people, not because they are "true," but rather because they are useful.
Since the focus of the classroom, in postmodern education, becomes the student's construction of knowledge, they shift away from a teacher-centered classroom to a more student-centered environment.
At least under postmodern theory we aren't guilty of an even worse crime according to postmodern scholar. In other words, when dominant culture calls on minorities to speak classroom English, do math, history and science the white man's way, they have acted in the old colonial role, just like earlier Europeans who believed it was their responsibility to colonize non-white cultures and lands, imposing European standards, dress, religion and language on those cultures.
References:
http://people.morehead-st.edu/fs/w.willis/fourtheories.html
http://www.spu.edu/online/essentialism_in_ed.htm
http://www.albany.edu/~dkw42/s2_dewey_progr.html
http://www.siue.edu/~ptheodo/foundations/perennialism.html
http://ksuweb.kennesaw.edu/~nparis/educ7700/EDUCATIONAL%20PHILOSOPHIES%20(Major)_.doc
http://www2.selu.edu/Academics/Faculty/nadams/educ692/Adler.html
http://www2.selu.edu/Academics/Faculty/nadams/educ692/Hutchins.html
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-b-watson
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressivism
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism
ato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism
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